The Ethiopian World Federation, Inc. established in 1937 "to unify, solidify, liberate, and free the Black people of the world in order to achieve self-determination, justice, and to maintain the integrity of Ethiopia–which is the divine heritage of the Black race." (Barrett, 1997, P.89) The EWF held similar goals as Marcus Garvey, Howell, and other repatriation leaders. It is believed that Howell may have been a part of the EWF. In 1955, the EWF came to Jamaica to portray a message that would help raise participation and belief in the repatriation of the Black race. The Rastafarians were so moved by the EWF’s message because repatriation is one of the principle beliefs in the religion. They claimed that Haile Selassie was building a navy that would eventually reach Jamaica. This concept was extremely uplifting but in conjunction with the EWF’s next announcement, repatriation seemed to have become a reality for the Rastafarians. (Barrett, 1997, P.89-90)

The EWF announced that Haile Selassie was giving five hundred acres of land to Blacks who had helped Ethiopia during the war with Mussolini. This land was called the Shasemani. (Barrett, 1997, P.228) The Rastafarian movement practically doubled as a result of this land grant that portrayed repatriation as a reality. Members of the movement anticipated that any day ships would come for them and take them to Ethiopia to their King. (Barrett, 1997, P.91) The Rastafarian movement was growing rapidly but not in a unified manner.

In an effort to unify the Rastifarian movement in March of 1958, the Rastafarian "Universal Convention" occurred in Kingston under the leadership of Prince Edward Emanuel. The response was overwhelming. An estimated three hundred men gathered with their families prepared for repatriation. (Barrett, 1997, P.92-94) "Rastamen from all over the island dropped everything, gave away their last possessions because they wouldn’t need them anymore, and came to town expecting to go on board." (Boot, Thomas, 1976, P.78) Unfortunately, though after twenty-one days of dancing, smoking, praying, etc. there were no ships docked for the Rastas to go "home." (Boot, Thomas, 1976, P.78) Prince Emanuel invited Claudius Henry to the convention. Henry was a Jamaican who was living in New York at the time. Although he was not a Rastafarian, Henry was a major influence on the Rastafarian repatriation movement. (Barrett, 1997, P.95)

In 1959, Claudius Henry followed his predecessor, Leonard Howell, by selling tickets to Ethiopia to desperate and faithful people. This "passport" to Ethiopia attracted more than just Rastafarians and EWF members. It also was purchased by a number of people who celebrate the emancipation of slavery on August 1^st because the ticket stated that there would be an Emancipation jubilee on that date. Another group that was attracted the Henry’s ticket were the Black Jews because the word "Israel" was printed on the ticket. On October 5^th thousands of people flocked to 78 Rosalie Avenue expecting to leave for Africa but only found thousands of other disappointed people who were going no where. (Barrett, 1997, P.96)

Unfortunately, Henry had expected that on October 5^th the government would have created a plan to address the condition of the Jamaican African population. He had never planned a literal movement to Africa on this date, as so many people had believed. Barrett explains Henry Claudius’ predicament as "what is known in social movement theory as "revolutionary judo," that is, the contradiction between symbolic declaration and real intention." (Barrett, 1997, P.97) Despite the fact that Henry tricked people and caused hundreds of people to disrupt their lives the government merely gave him a fine and instructed him to keep the peace for a year. (Barrett, 1997, P.97) Shortly after his release, Henry’s Headquarters were invaded. There they discovered a collection of weapons as well as a letter asking Fidel Castro to help him take over Jamaica. The government was far less lenient to Henry this time. For six years, Henry was jailed for treason. (Edwards, 1999, P.2)

Claudius Henry’s arrest forced Jamaicans to pay attention to the Rastafarians and the concept of repatriation. In order for the government to understand and even attempt to aid in the Rastafarian movement Dr. Arthur Lewis, 1993, had three scholars research and create suggestions for the Premier of Jamaica. The first recommendation stated that, "The government should send a mission to African countries to arrange for immigration of Jamaicans. Representatives of Ras Tafari brethren should be included in the mission." (Barrett, 1997, P.100) Norman Manley instigated plans to make the changes suggested. The government did send selected Rastafarian leaders to Africa as suggested. This did not spark any immediate repatriation though it did greatly heighten awareness of the realities of Africa, which temporarily subdued the movement. (Barrett, 1997, P.100)

While in Africa the Rastafarian leaders visited the Shasemani land that was granted by the Emperor. This land was reported to be fertile and an opportune place to live. On this mission, Haile Selassie supposedly said to one of the Rastafarian leaders that he should "tell the Brethren be not dismayed, I personally will give my assistance in the matter of their repatriation." (Barrett, 1997, P.118) This message renewed faith in the eventual repatriation to Ethiopia. The University Report also indirectly caused Ras Samuel Brown to run for political office in 1961.

Sam Brown went against his Rastafarian beliefs by running for political office. He believed that the only way to rise from oppression was to become powerful. Brown failed to get even one hundred votes, but he did succeed in getting his message to the people. He ran using a platform of "Twenty-One Points." His campaign drew attention to the Rastafarian movement and especially its potential. (Garrett P.148) Within his "Twenty-One Points" he used to word "liberation" in conjunction with "power." This idea foreshadowed the way that some Rastafarians look at repatriation today which is the idea of "liberation before repatriation." (Garrett P.152) Haile Selassie confirmed Sam Brown’s ideas while visiting Jamaica.

April 21, 1966 an estimated one hundred thousand people greeted Haile Selassie when he landed in Jamaica. Leading Rastafarians had opportunities to converse with the Emperor. He stated "that the brethren should not seek to immigrate to Ethiopia until they had liberated the people of Jamaica." (Garrett P.160) Some Rastafarians now believe that instead of immediate repatriation that first there must be liberation.

A more contemporary concept is an internal migration to African roots rather than a literal move to Africa. Contrary to Garvey’s teachings, Rastafarians have turned the Back-to-Africa movement into a spiritual change. (Erskine, 1998, P.163) In the 1960’s, efforts were made to prepare people for their return to Africa such as classes in Africanization. These classes focused on the Ethiopian language as well as religion. Films were also shown to portray the culture. (Barrett, 1997, P.117) More recently though organizations such as the Rastafarian Movement Association have focused on "liberation before migration."

The RMA has made many efforts to help the Black people of Jamaica. The RMA oversees a youth program that provides food and activities to poor children. They also print a monthly paper full of current events, Ethiopian history, African art, Rastafarian information, etc. The RMA is consciously attempting to educate and liberate Jamaican Blacks in hopes of a later migration to Africa. (Barrett, 1997, P.117)

The concept of "liberation before migration" has been widely accepted by many Rastafarians though there are people who believe that actual movement to Africa is the solution to Black oppression. Some Rastafarians migrated to Shasemani such as a Rastafarian by the name of Antonio. Antonio left Jamaica to free himself of Babylon and reconnect with his homeland. In Shasemani Rastafarians live in traditional houses made from straw, clay, mud, and concrete. There are branches the Twelve Tribes of Israel as well. The Rastas are self-sufficient in Shasemani because they are not forced to live on wage labor to survive. (Lewis, 1993, P.100) Some Rastafarians also believe that the end is near and that repatriation is their only hope. Antonio expressed that belief in this statement.

This is no longer a time for discussion on this or that perspective on the Rastafari. Time is short. By the year 2000 all things will be destroyed in the West. The talks on nuclear disarmament are useless. Satan sits at the conference table. Only repatriation makes sense.

(Lewis, 1993, P.100)

Antonio spoke about the Rastafarian commune and their accomplishments, but there is another side to repatriation. An Amharic woman who formerly was married to a repatriated Rasta living in Shasemani had a different view of repatriation. Living in Shasemani, she experienced the Rastas’ ill treatment of women, exploitation of new Rastas, and the differences in Ethiopians and Rastafarians. She has scars from beatings by her husband because she was not used to such a male dominated lifestyle. The Rastas do not eat Ethiopian foods such as meat, coffee, and tea. She recalls how newly repatriated people would be overworked and received little in return. This Amharic woman gave many examples of how repatriated Rastas were not a part of Ethiopian culture. (Lewis, 1993, P.112-113) She eloquently stated the reality of repatriation in this quote.

When my several months’ sojourn among the Rastafari in Shashemene ended, I concluded that the Rastafari were alone in this ancient land. Their symbolic world which spoke of African roots, blackness and rejection of the white Jesus and racism appeared muted in this Christian and Muslim community of Shashemene.

(Lewis, 1993, P.113)

The reality of the repatriation movement is that people imagined Africa opening its arms to Blacks so they could live without oppression forever. Some Rastas do not even know geographically where Ethiopia is, but that is immaterial, to them Ethiopia is the future. (Boot, Thomas, 1976, P.79) According to Gregory Stephens "there was some conflict between the African Zion of faith, and the African reality. But the truth is that the geographical Africa had very little to do with what Garvey imagined, or with what most Rastas projected onto it." (Stephens Interview, 1998) Marcus Garvey barely spoke in detail about Africa. He based most of his knowledge of Africa from the bible instead of facts. The picture of Africa that has been painted by repatriation (physical or mental) supporters such as Marcus Garvey, Leonard Howell, and artists such as Bob Marley serves as a hope for a brighter future for the Black race.

There is no easy solution to overcoming hundreds of years of oppression. Repatriation was and still is believed by many to be the answer. Marcus Garvey believed that by forming a Black Nation where they were the majority race would eventually raise Blacks’ status in the world. (Barrett, 1997, P.68) Others believe that as Sam Brown did that liberation must occur before any form of mass migration would be possible or beneficial. (Garrett P.148) There are also those who hold firm to the idea of mental repatriation. They believe that a literal migration is not necessary because internally Blacks can get back to their roots. The Rastafarian religion revolves around repatriation to Ethiopia, but even today some Rastas feel like migration may not be best. The Back-to-Africa movement has had many different leaders, as well as followers, but to date there have been no mass migrations. Africa will forever be in the minds and hearts of Rastafarians and Blacks as a way out of Babylon and oppression.

                          ETHIOPIAN WORLD FEDERATION